Understanding Peptides
1. NNMT Inhibition / Obesity & Metabolic Studies
Kraus, D., et al. (2014).
Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase knockdown protects against diet-induced obesity. Nature.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13198
Neelakantan, H., et al. (2017).
Selective and membrane-permeable small-molecule inhibitors of nicotinamide N-methyltransferase reverse high-fat diet–induced obesity in mice. Biochemical Pharmacology.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2017.01.010
Sampson, C.M., et al. (2021).
Combined NNMT inhibition and reduced-calorie diet normalizes body composition in obese mice. Scientific Reports.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-85180-y
Dimet-Wiley, A.L., et al. (2024).
NNMT inhibition mimics and boosts exercise-mediated improvements in muscle function in aged mice. Scientific Reports.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-72450-1
Liu, J.-R., et al. (2021).
Roles of NNMT in obesity and type 2 diabetes. BioMed Research International.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9924314
2. AOD9604 / GH Fragment Studies
Ng, F.M., et al. (2000).
Metabolic studies of lipolytic domain AOD9604. Hormone Research.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000053275
Stier, H., et al. (2013).
Safety/tolerability of AOD9604 in humans. Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism.
https://doi.org/10.4021/jem154w
Moré, M.I., et al. (2014).
Safety & metabolism of AOD9604. Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism.
https://doi.org/10.14740/jem244w
Heffernan, M.A., et al. (2001).
GH and AOD9604 effects in obese and β3-KO mice. Endocrinology.
https://doi.org/10.1210/endo.142.12.8546
Johannsson, G., et al. (1997).
GH treatment in abdominal obesity. JCEM.
https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.82.3.727
3. BPC-157 (Tissue Repair, Angiogenesis, CNS)
Seiwerth, S., et al. (2018).
BPC-157 & the CNS. Frontiers in Neuroscience.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00897
Sikiric, P., et al. (2013).
GI effects of BPC-157. Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology.
(PubMed) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24366395/
Chang, C.H., et al. (2011).
Muscle healing with BPC-157. Journal of Applied Physiology.
https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00596.2011
Chang, C.H., Tsai, W.C., et al. (2018).
BPC-157 ↑ GH receptor expression. Molecules.
https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23113066
Brcic, L., et al. (2009).
Angiogenesis in healing. J Physiol Pharmacol.
(PubMed) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20388956/
Gwyer, D., et al. (2019).
Soft tissue healing. Cell Tissue Research.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00441-019-03089-6
Huang, T., et al. (2020).
Toxicology profile of BPC-157. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2020.104639
Vasireddi, N., et al. (2025).
Orthopedic applications. HSS Journal.
https://doi.org/10.1177/15563316251355551
4. Thymosin β4 / TB-500
Philp, D., et al. (2004).
Tβ4 roles in wound healing. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mad.2003.11.004
Xiong, Y., et al. (2010).
Neurogenesis/angiogenesis after injury. Current Opinion in Investigational Drugs.
(PubMed) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20140875/
5. Epitalon / Pineal Peptides
Khavinson, V.K., et al. (2003).
Epitalon → telomerase activation. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025411914691
Khavinson & Morozov (2003).
Pineal peptides & longevity. Neuro Endocrinology Letters.
(PubMed) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14647003/
Anisimov, V.N., et al. (2003).
Lifetime extension in mice. Biogerontology.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025101611383
Khavinson, V.K., et al. (2020).
Neurogenesis gene expression. Molecules.
https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25030609
Khavinson, V.K., et al. (2002).
Epitalon in retinal degeneration. Neuro Endocrinol Lett.
(PubMed) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12500177/
6. Follistatin (Muscle Growth / Gene Therapy)
Al-Zaidy, S.A., et al. (2015).
Gene therapy in Becker MD. Journal of Neuromuscular Diseases.
https://doi.org/10.3233/JND-150100
Mendell, J.R., et al. (2015).
Phase 1/2a trial. Molecular Therapy.
https://doi.org/10.1038/mt.2014.241
Mendell, J.R., et al. (2017).
IBM therapy outcomes. Molecular Therapy.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymthe.2017.01.003
Campbell, C., et al. (2019).
ACE-083 induces hypertrophy. Scientific Reports.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47664-3
Yoon, S.J., et al. (2020).
Follistatin reduces inflammation. Science Advances.
https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz7492
7. GHK-Cu
Pickart, L., et al. (2018).
GHK-Cu gene modulation. International Journal of Molecular Sciences.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19071987
Pickart, L., et al. (2015).
GHK in skin regeneration. Biomed Research International.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/648108
Abdulghani, A.A., et al. (1998).
Topical copper peptide vs tretinoin. Disease Management & Clinical Outcomes.
(PubMed) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18044055/
Dou, Y., et al. (2020).
Anti-aging potential. Aging Pathobiology and Therapeutics.
https://doi.org/10.31487/j.APT.2020.01.01
Pickart & Margolina (2018).
GHK-Cu gene expression review. OBM Geriatrics.
https://doi.org/10.21926/obm.geriatr.1803009
8. CJC-1295 (GHRH Analog)
Teichman, S.L., et al. (2006).
Prolonged GH/IGF-1 stimulation. JCEM.
https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2005-2399
Ionescu, M., et al. (2006).
Dose-dependent GH increases. Clinical Endocrinology.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.2005.02442.x
Sackmann-Sala, L., et al. (2009).
Proteomics in GH axis activation. GH & IGF Research.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ghir.2009.05.004
Jetté, L., et al. (2005).
CJC-1295 discovery. Endocrinology.
https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2004-1245
Fazeli, P.K., et al. (2006).
Phase I safety trial. JCI.
https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI28149
Teichman, S.L., et al. (2005).
PK/PD study. Drug Development Research.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ddr.20077
9. GHRPs / Ghrelin Pathway
Bowers, C.Y., et al. (1990).
Synthetic GHRP discovery. Endocrinology.
https://doi.org/10.1210/endo-126-3-1537
Laferrère, B. (2005).
GHRP-2 increases food intake. JCEM.
https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-1324
Pihoker, C., et al. (1995).
Intranasal GHRP-2. Journal of Endocrinology.
https://doi.org/10.1677/joe.0.1470473
Garcia, J.M., et al. (2013).
Macimorelin GH test. JCEM.
https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-1168
Sigalos, J.T., et al. (2018).
Secretagogue safety. Sexual Medicine Reviews.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sxmr.2017.01.004
Berlanga-Acosta, J., et al. (2017).
Cytoprotection. Clinical Medicine Insights: Cardiology.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1179546817694558
Popovic, V. (1995).
GHRP-6 response blockade. JCEM.
https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.80.9.7883844
Adams, E.F., et al. (1995).
PI turnover. Journal of Endocrinology.
https://doi.org/10.1677/joe.0.1450035
Berlanga-Acosta, J., et al. (2024).
GHRP-6 prevents doxorubicin toxicity. Frontiers in Pharmacology.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2024.1402138
Nass, R., et al. (2008).
Oral ghrelin mimetic. Annals of Internal Medicine.
https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-149-9-200811040-00006
10. Amylin / Cagrilintide / CagriSema / GLP-1 / GIP
Cagrilintide Alone
Frias, J.P., et al. (2021). Lancet
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02448-0
Enebo, L.B., et al. (2023). Lancet
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02447-9
Enebo, L.B., et al. (2023). Obesity
https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.23691
Lau, D.C.W., et al. (2025). Nat Med
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-025-03351-y
CagriSema
Rubino, D., et al. (2025). NEJM
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2400211
Garvey, W.T., et al. (2025). NEJM
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2400212
Rosenstock, J., et al. (2023). Lancet
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)00898-4
Dutta, D., et al. (2024). IJEM
https://doi.org/10.4103/ijem.ijem_414_23
Tirzepatide
Frias, J.P., et al. (2023). NEJM
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2206038
Rosenstock, J., et al. (2023). Lancet
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01241-0
11. Retatrutide
Jastreboff, A.M., et al. (2025).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obmed.2024.100523
Rosenstock, J., et al. (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)00819-4
12. Survodutide
Rosenstock, J., et al. (2024).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(23)00310-8
Frías, J.P., et al. (2024).
https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.15393
Tsoukas, M.A., et al. (2024).
https://doi.org/10.1097/MS9.0000000000002191
le Roux, C.W., et al. (2024).
https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.23943
Rosenstock, J., et al. (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(23)00216-7